Group A Streptococcus Infections.

Group A Streptococcus causes a variety of clinical manifestations, including pharyngitis and skin and soft tissue infections as well as more invasive disease. There are also multiple nonsuppurative complications of group A Streptococcus infection, including acute rheumatic fever and poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. Pediatricians should be able to diagnose and treat the various presentations of the infection.

Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for group B streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: A case report and literature review.

RATIONALE: Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS) rapidly leads to refractory shock and multiple organ failure. The mortality rate among patients with STSS is 40%; however, most deaths occur within a few days of onset. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) may help avoid acute death in adult patients with STSS. However, the effectiveness of VA-ECMO is unclear. In this study, we report a case of group B STSS, which was successfully treated with VA-ECMO despite cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) owing to rapidly progressive refractory shock. PATIENT CONCERNS: A 60-year-old woman was hospitalized because of diarrhea and electrolyte abnormalities owing to chemoradiation therapy for rectal cancer. A sudden deterioration of her condition led to CPA. Conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation was immediately performed but was ineffective. Therefore, VA-ECMO was initiated. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography revealed duodenal perforation. Hence, septic shock owing to peritonitis was diagnosed, and emergency surgery was performed under VA-ECMO. However, the patient had progressive multiple organ failure and required organ support therapy in the intensive care unit (ICU). DIAGNOSES: On day 2 in the ICU, blood and ascites fluid culture tests revealed beta-hemolytic streptococci, and the patient was finally diagnosed as having STSS caused by Streptococcus agalactiae. INTERVENTIONS: Clindamycin was added to meropenem, vancomycin, and micafungin, which had been administered since the sudden deterioration. In addition, VA-ECMO, mechanical ventilation, blood purification therapy, and treatment for disseminated intravascular coagulation were continued. OUTCOMES: Thereafter, hemodynamics improved rapidly, and the patient was weaned off VA-ECMO on day 5 of ICU admission. She was transferred to a general ward on day 22 in the ICU. LESSONS: In patients with fatal STSS and rapid progressive refractory shock or CPA, VA-ECMO may help to avoid acute death and improve prognosis by ameliorating tissue oxygenation and providing extra time to treat invasive streptococcal infection.

An updated review of pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with Streptococcus/pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome, also known as idiopathic autoimmune encephalitis: What the allergist should know.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome, further subcategorized as pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus, is a form of idiopathic autoimmune encephalitis (IAE). Poststreptococcal autoimmunity seen in Idiopathic autoimmune encephalitis manifests as various neuropsychiatric symptoms such as obsessive rituals, tics, anxiety, depression, and many others. Idiopathic autoimmune encephalitis has clinically heterogeneous phenotypes that make accurate diagnosing difficult, although diagnostic testing such as the Cunningham Panel increases the likelihood of finding effective treatments. Current recommended treatments include psychiatric medication, behavioral intervention, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory therapy, and immunomodulating therapy. OBJECTIVE: To provide an updated review on the diagnosis, management, and treatment of pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcus and pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric syndrome, also referred to as IAE. RESULTS: Information from 47 sources was used to outline current knowledge of IAE pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and epidemiology, and to outline diagnostic recommendations and current treatment guidelines. Gaps in knowledge, in addition to current controversy, were also outlined to provide a thorough background of this condition and future needs for IAE research. CONCLUSION: Owing to the complexity and variability in ways patients with IAE may present to the allergist/immunologist office, an interdisciplinary approach is imperative to provide patients with the best medical care. Still, more research is needed to further elucidate the mechanism(s) and optimal treatment algorithm for IAE to facilitate broader recognition and acceptance of this condition by the medical community.

[Abnormal mTOR Signaling Pathway Activity in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Prospects of Mechanism-Based Therapy].

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder characterized by the early onset of problems with communication, learning, and behavior. The syndromic form of ASD is caused by monogenic mutations. When it is not possible to find genetic or other known mechanisms, the term "idiopathic autism" is used. A significant part of both syndromic and idiopathic autism is associated with translational deregulation dependent on the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). In this review, we present both bioinformatic and experimental data that link the mTOR signaling pathway to maternal autoantibody related autism and childhood autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders such as Sydenham's chorea and pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS). The need for ASD subtyping and the prospects of mechanism-based therapy with inhibitors of the mTOR signaling pathway are also discussed.

Outcomes and management of pregnancy and puerperal group A streptococcal infections: A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: Group A streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes) is one of the most lethal bacterial pathogens of humans, with increased risk of progression to septic shock and multiorgan failure in the pregnant population. The objective of this study is to systematically review the outcomes and management strategies for pregnancy and puerperal group A streptococcus infections in an effort to provide further guidance for prevention and treatment of a rare but lethal infection worldwide. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A comprehensive search using puerperium and streptococcus pyogenes terms was completed across several registered databases. A total of 902 articles investigating pregnancy and puerperal group A streptococcus infection were identified, with 40 studies fulfilling inclusion criteria of original research articles in humans published from 1990 onwards reporting four or more unique cases of group A streptococcus in pregnancy or postpartum. This study was registered in PROSPERO: CRD42020198983. RESULTS: A total of 1160 patients with pregnancy and puerperal group A streptococcus infection were identified. Most infections occurred postpartum (91.9%), with 4.7% reported antepartum and 0.6% intrapartum. Bacteremia was present in 49.0% of patients and endometritis in 45.9%. Puerperal sepsis was described in 28.2% of cases and progressed to streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in one-third of such cases. Overall, the case fatality ratio was 2.0%, with one-third of the deaths from antenatal cases including 3/22 (13.6%) cases of septic abortion and 10/46 (21.7%) antenatal cases of group A streptococcus infection. CONCLUSIONS: Group A streptococcus infection remains an important contributor to pregnancy and puerperal morbidity and mortality. Early recognition, diagnosis and aggressive management are important for favorable outcomes given the serious risk of sepsis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome.

Pathophysiological Considerations in Periorbital Necrotizing Fasciitis: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND: Periorbital necrotizing fasciitis (PNF) is a rare complication of bacterial infection, associated with irreversible inflammatory destruction of soft tissues like subcutaneous tissue and superficial fascia. PNF can cause visual loss, septic shock and death within hours to days. Since the infection progresses rapidly from a local disease to septic shock, prompt identification and decisive interventions are mandatory. AIM: Considering pathophysiology, differential diagnosis, and treatment options, we report a case of PNF and its outcome. METHODS: A 69 years old male with febrile periorbital swelling had been diagnosed with bilateral PNF, caused by dual infection with Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) based on conjunctival swabs. RESULTS: The superantigens produced by S. pyogenes have been identified as key to the rapid dissemination of infection and severity of systemic manifestations. CONCLUSION: A combination of intravenous antibiotics and regular surgical debridements resulted in a beneficial outcome in our patient.

Acute abdomen: a rare presentation of group a streptococcal infection.

In this case report we describe a 38-year old female patient admitted to the emergency department with acute abdomen and sepsis. Broad-spectrum antibiotics were started. Abdominal imaging was inconclusive, exploratory laparoscopy showed four-quadrant peritonitis. No provoking factor could be withheld. Due to clinical deterioration the patient was transferred to the intensive care unit. Blood cultures showed the presence of group A streptococcus, and clindamycin was associated. She recovered, and could be discharged after several days. Peritonitis caused by group A Streptococcus pyogenes is rare in healthy individuals, and occurs mostly in middle-aged women. There is no consensus regarding surgical treatment but surgical exploration is often necessary to exclude secondary peritonitis. Treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics and supportive measurements remain the cornerstone in patient management. Association of clindamycin has been shown to reduce mortality. There is inconclusive evidence to support Intravenous polyspecific immunoglobulin G (IVIG) therapy in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome.

Therapeutic plasma exchange in adolescent and adult patients with autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections.

Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal (PANDAS) infections and pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (PANS) are typically diagnosed in childhood. Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) has been recommended to remove relevant antibodies and treat symptomatic presentations in children and adolescents, but there are no studies that evaluate the use of TPE in patients who are diagnosed later in life. It is therefore unclear if using an accepted treatment for pediatric PANS/PANDAS patients would be beneficial in adults with prolonged PANDAS/PANS symptomatic histories. This study investigated 16 late adolescent and adult PANDAS/PANS patients' responses to TPE. Improvement was noted in over half of the patients with available follow-up information.

Case Report: Therapeutic Strategy With Delayed Debridement for Culture-Negative Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections Diagnosed by Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing.

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS) caused by group A streptococcus is a rare condition that rapidly developed to multiple organ failure even death. Therefore, prompt diagnosis, initiate appropriate antibiotics and other supportive treatments are critical. Here we reported a case of STSS caused by group A streptococcus infection. A healthy 39-year-old man presented a sudden pain in the left lower extremity, followed by a high fever (40.0 °C) with dizziness, nausea, and shortness of breath. Twenty-four hours before the visit, the patient showed anuria. The patient was then admitted to the intensive care unit. Blood examination revealed elevated levels of inflammatory markers and creatinine. He suffered from septic shock, dysfunction of coagulation, acute kidney dysfunction, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and acute liver function injury. The diagnosis was obtained through clinical manifestation and metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) drawn from the pustule and deep soft tissue (lower limb) samples while all bacterial cultures came back negative. The pustule mNGS report detected a total of 132 unique group A streptococcus sequence reads, representing 96.3% of microbial reads while the soft tissue mNGS report identified a total of 142474 unique group A streptococcus sequence reads, representing 100% of microbial reads. The patient was treated with aggressive fluid resuscitation, antibiotics comprising piperacillin/tazobactam and clindamycin, respiratory support, following the delayed surgical debridement. Intravenous immunoglobulin was also used for 5 days. On the 14th day after admission, he was transferred to the general ward for follow-up treatment. Our case highlighted, for the first time, the key role of mNGS in the early diagnosis of culture-negative invasive group A streptococcal infection. The case also suggested that clindamycin combined with beta-lactam antibiotics and adjunction of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy with delayed debridement performed well in the management of unstable STSS patients.

CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND VISUAL OUTCOMES IN ENDOPHTHALMITIS AFTER KERATOPROSTHESIS IMPLANTATION.

PURPOSE: To describe the presentation, microbiology, management, and prognosis of eyes with endophthalmitis after Boston keratoprosthesis implantation. METHODS: Retrospective case series with history, diagnostics, management, and outcomes data in endophthalmitis after keratoprosthesis implantation presenting to a tertiary center between 2009 and 2020. RESULTS: Of 137 keratoprosthesis-implanted eyes, 7 eyes of 7 patients (5%) developed endophthalmitis. On presentation, 6 (86%) reported decreased visual acuity, and only 1 (14%) reported pain. Peripheral corneal ulcers were present in 2 eyes (29%). Seidel testing was negative in all cases. Six eyes (86%) had retroprosthetic membranes. One (14%) underwent initial pars plana vitrectomy with mechanical vitreous biopsy, whereas 6 (86%) received a needle vitreous tap-half of which were dry. Organisms were isolated after vitreous tap in two eyes: Streptococcus intermedius and Mycobacterium abscessus. The mean visual acuity preendophthalmitis, at presentation, and at 6 months were 20/267, 20/5,944, and 20/734, respectively. The visual acuity improved 9.08 ± 11.78 Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study lines from presentation to 6 months. Six-month visual acuity was correlated with preendophthalmitis visual acuity (r = 0.92, P = 0.003) but not presenting visual acuity (P = 0.838). CONCLUSION: Visual acuity at 6 months is correlated with preendophthalmitis visual acuity, not presenting visual acuity. Endophthalmitis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of painless intraocular inflammation any time after keratoprosthesis implantation, even if Seidel negative.

A Rare Case of Monomicrobial Necrotizing Fasciitis Associated With an Initial Acute Compartment Syndrome.

In this article we report a rare case of necrotizing fasciitis presenting with the possible initial symptom of compartment syndrome. After treatment with broad spectrum and targeted antibiotics in addition to multiple fasciotomies, surgical debridement, and grafts the patient went on to uneventful healing within 6 months. This case report highlights the possibility of a compartment syndrome as the only initial symptom of a monomicrobial necrotizing soft tissue infection. While multiple case reports have documented group A streptococcal cellulitis as initiating a later acute compartment syndrome, this is to our knowledge the first case in the foot and ankle of compartment syndrome as a possible early symptom of a group A streptococcal (monomicrobial) necrotizing fasciitis.

Enfermedad invasiva por Streptococcus pyogenes con celulitis de manos bilateral: A propósito de un caso / Invasive Streptococcus pyogenes disease with bilateral cellulitis of the hands: A case report

El Streptococcus pyogenes o estreptococo B hemolítico Grupo A (EßHGA) suele ser una causa poco habitual de enfermedad invasiva en pediatría, la cual ha presentado un aumento en su incidencia en los últimos años. Se define como cualquier infección asociada al aislamiento de dicha bacteria de un sitio normalmente estéril y cuya presentación más frecuente es la bacteriemia. Los pacientes con EßHGA habitualmente se presentan con un sindrome febril asociado a manifestaciones clínicas relacionadas con el sitio primario de infección. Se presenta el caso de una paciente de 10 años, sin comorbilidades, que desarrolló enfermedad invasiva por EßHGA con bacteriemia e impacto secundario de piel y partes blandas resultando en una celulitis de manos bilateral

Streptococcus pyogenes or Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is an infrequent cause of invasive disease in pediatrics. Its incidence has increased in the last few years. It is defined as any infection associated with the isolation of GAS in a normally sterile site and its most frequent presentation is bacteremia. Patients with GAS bacteremia usually present with a febrile syndrome associated with clinical manifestations related to the primary site of infection. We present the case of a previously healthy, 10-year-old patient, who developed an invasive disease due to GAS with bacteremia and secondary impact of skin and soft tissues that developed in bilateral cellulitis of the hands

Probiotic lactobacilli in formulas and hygiene products for the health of the urogenital tract.

Lactobacilli are the predominant microorganisms of the healthy human vagina. A novel alternative for the prevention and treatment of female urogenital tract infections (UGTI) is the inclusion of these microorganisms as active pharmaceutical ingredients in probiotic formulas, and more recently in female hygienic products. Probiotics are defined as "live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host." A list of requirements must be considered during the development of probiotic product/formula for the female urogenital tract (UGT). This review aims to resume the requirements, probiotic characteristics, and clinical trial applied to determine the effect of probiotic and potentially probiotic strains on different woman's physiological and pathological conditions, and in preterm birth prevention. A revision of female hygienic products available in the world market is included, together with novel studies applying nanotechnology for Lactobacillus incorporation in hygienic products. Further studies and well-designed clinical trials are urgently required to complement the current knowledge and applications of probiotics in the female UGT. The use of probiotic formulas and products will improve and restore the ecological equilibrium of the UGT microbiome to prevent and treat UGTI in women under different conditions.

Streptolysin O concentration and activity is central to in vivo phenotype and disease outcome in Group A Streptococcus infection.

Group A Streptoccocus (GAS) is among the most diverse of all human pathogens, responsible for a range of clinical manifestations, from mild superficial infections such as pharyngitis to serious invasive infections such as necrotising fasciitis and sepsis. The drivers of these different disease phenotypes are not known. The GAS cholesterol-dependent cytolysin, Streptolysin O (SLO), has well established cell and tissue destructive activity. We investigated the role of SLO in determining disease outcome in vivo, by using two different clinical lineages; the recently emerged hypervirulent outbreak emm type 32.2 strains, which result in sepsis, and the emm type 1.0 strains which cause septic arthritis. Using clinically relevant in vivo mouse models of sepsis and a novel septic arthritis model, we found that the amount and activity of SLO was vital in determining the course of infection. The emm type 32.2 strain produced large quantities of highly haemolytic SLO that resulted in rapid development of sepsis. By contrast, the reduced concentration and lower haemolytic activity of emm type 1.0 SLO led to translocation of bacteria from blood to joints. Importantly, sepsis associated strains that were attenuated by deletion or inhibition of SLO, then also translocated to the joint, confirming the key role of SLO in determining infection niche. Our findings demonstrate that SLO is key to in vivo phenotype and disease outcome. Careful consideration should be given to novel therapy or vaccination strategies that target SLO. Whilst neutralising SLO activity may reduce severe invasive disease, it has the potential to promote chronic inflammatory conditions such as septic arthritis.

Global patterns of necrotizing soft tissue infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Frequency, microbiology, and outcomes of necrotizing soft tissue infections vary based on locoregional and environmental factors; however, there has been no global survey of these patterns. We performed a systematic review/meta-analysis on published reports of necrotizing soft tissue infections from across the globe. METHODS: Peer-reviewed empirical studies examining rates of polymicrobial and monomicrobial necrotizing soft tissue infections with microbial isolation and overall mortality rate were extracted along with geographic location using PubMed, Scopus, ProQuest, and Web of Science. Random-effects meta-analyses and sensitivity analyses were performed, adjusting for publication bias. Meta-regression analyses examined moderator effects of risk factors. RESULTS: One hundred and five studies (8,718 total patients) were included. Pooled prevalence of polymicrobial and monomicrobial infections were 53% and 37.9%, respectively. Truncal necrotizing soft tissue infections were commonly polymicrobial (P < .001), whereas monomicrobial infections prevailed in extremities (P = .008). Global prevalence of monomicrobial necrotizing soft tissue infections was observed to increase by 1.1% annually (P = .003). Staphylococcus aureus was the most common organism globally and in North America, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, followed by Streptococcus pyogenes and Escherichia coli. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus accounted for 16% of necrotizing soft tissue infections globally. Overall mortality was 23.1%, observed to decline globally over the last decade (P = .020). No regional differences were noted for mortality. CONCLUSION: Although polymicrobial infections remain predominant worldwide, the incidence of monomicrobial infections is increasing. The observed decline in necrotizing soft tissue infection-related mortality is encouraging and may reflect advances in management, despite major variations in available healthcare resources globally.

Findings of prosthetic valve endocarditis in the balloon-expandable trans-catheter aortic valve: review of the literature and tips of management.

Prosthetic valve endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) is a rare complication associated with a high mortality rate. Nonetheless, the rapid expansion of TAVI in recent years has proportionally increased the number of patients exposed to the risk of developing transcatheter valve infection. A 71-year-old female with recent history of TAVI was diagnosed with prosthetic valve obstruction secondary to endocarditis. The characteristics of clinical presentation of endocarditis in the balloon-expandable transcatheter valve and the intra-operative findings are discussed with a review of the literature and tips of management.

Necrotizing Skin and Soft Tissue Infections Admitted to Intensive Care Unit in Reunion Island: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

This retrospective and single-center study in Reunion Island (Indian Ocean) assessed frequency, mortality, causative pathogens of severe necrotizing skin, and necrotizing skin and soft tissue infections (NSSTIs) admitted in intensive care unit (ICU). Sixty-seven consecutive patients were included from January 2012 to December 2018. Necrotizing skin and soft tissue infection represented 1.06% of total ICU admissions. We estimate the incidence of NSSTI requiring ICU at 1.21/100,000 person/years in Reunion Island. Twenty (30%) patients were receiving nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) prior to admission in ICU and 40 (60%) were diagnosed patients with diabetes. Sites of infection were the lower limb in 52 (78%) patients, upper limb in 4 (6%), and perineum in 10 (15%). The surgical treatment was debridement for 40 patients, whereas 11 patients required an amputation. The most commonly isolated microorganisms were Streptococci (42%) and Gram-negative bacteria (22%).The mortality rate was 25.4%. NSAIDs did not influence mortality when interrupted upon admission to ICU.